Updated: May 17, 2011
What follows is something I have been working on for awhile now. Given the recent discussion about "JRPGs" and "WRPGs", I've decided to let people read my notes to better understand the way I look at games and how I believe others should look at games when trying to quantify their elements.
While I have encouraged people to use the older terms of "console-style" and "PC-style" in place of "JRPG" and "WRPG" since the older terms are more politically correct, I do recognize the older terms are also misnomers and many people see no reason to stop using misnomers in place of other misnomers.
A recurring problem with videogame classification is that a lot of the genre labels we use for games are misnomers; even "strategy rpg" and the Japanese equivalent for the genre, "simulation rpg", are misnomers because all games require strategy and all games are simulations.
One of my core design principles for creating game mechanics is to make the design modular. 'Modular' means you can swap out parts of the design for other parts and the game will still function correctly (which is important so that new rules can be added to an existing game without upsetting its balance). Since I personally would prefer to see genre labels be modular I have attempted to create a modular system for identifying CRPG game genres.
Please note that this is a work in progress-- I think the labels I currently have here are a'bit of a mouthful-- but you can see the direction I'm going.
-----------------
Syntax of the definitions.
Modular systems require a syntax-- a pattern, if you will. The syntax I have created for defining computer RPG genres is as follows:
[Combat system] [narrative model] [target audience] [narrative genre] RPG
An example would be,
'Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG'
With....
..."real time based" representing the combat system...
..."linear" representing the narrative model...
..."Children's" representing the target audience...
...and "fantasy" representing the narrative genre...
A 'Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG' would be Secret of Mana.
Combat genres
In an attempt to best identify different types of combat systems that appear in combat RPGs, I have created the following terms:
Phased turn based : DQ and Wizardry system; at the start of combat the game waits for the player to decide the actions their character(s) will take when combat begins. These systems have combat time divided into blocks called 'rounds'. The combat system descends directly from the tabletop game Dungeons and Dragons, though the games use a more abstract concept of range than D&D did (example: Final Fantasy has a concept of a "front row" and a "back row"). In a Phased turn based system, the player's character(s) will always act in combat before the opposing NPCs can act.
Sequential turn based : A turn based system where each character (including NPCs) has a Speed rating that determines the precise order they will act during a combat round. The system is otherwise identical to Phased turn based combat. While the way turns are determined is more similar to D&D, the abstract nature of range remains.
Active turn based: Games using a system derived from Final Fantasy IV's Active Time Battle System. Unlike Sequential and Phased there is no "pause" between rounds; after taking an action, characters gradually accumulate points as time passes to fill a "bar" and when that bar is full they can make an action. However, like Sequential turn based, characters have a Speed rating that determines how quickly their bar fills up.
Real time based: Games where characters do not take turns. Instead action happens in real time. Characters may or may not have delays on what actions they may take but are capable of moving at any time and almost always have some meaningful action they can do during combat.
Pausable real time based: Real time combat games where players must pause the gameplay to issue orders to characters. Once the game is un-paused the orders are carried out by the characters. Some examples are Secret of Mana, Fallout 3 and Parasite Eve.
Wargaming turn based: Games using a system descending from tabletop wargames. These games tend to be called "strategy RPGs". The player controls a squad of characters who fight across a battlefield using a turn based combat system. They tend to have a more definite concept of range, whereas a Sequential turn based game like Final Fantasy only uses an abstract concept of range (the "rows")
Wargaming real time based: Games using a system descending from tabletop wargames. The player controls a squad of characters who fight across a battlefield using a real time based combat system.
Rogue-like based: A game that uses a combat system derived from Rogue. An example would be the Mystery Dungeon series of games.
Narrative models
Linear: The narrative travels in a straight line with no alternate routes. This is the narrative model used by the majority of fiction, such as novels, films, television shows and video games.
Dynamic non-linear: The rarest type of non-linear narrative model. The player makes choices during gameplay that shape the game's narrative in a meaningful and critical ways so as to substantially change the direction of the game's narrative. There are either no or very few milestone events that the player "must" clear in order for the narrative to advance. The game offers a large number of narrative routes the player can choose to bypass and that will not prevent the narrative from moving forward (an example: Romancing SaGa: MS)
Because I realize this can be a difficult concept for one to visualize I have created the following image to demonstrate what the narrative paths in a Dynamic non-linear narrative look like:
Dynamic non-linear narratives are rare in games because the model gives the writer less control over the flow of the narrative, making it harder for him to craft a meaningful story that hits all the correct emotional buttons in the player. The difficulty and additional time spent writing these narratives are, in my opinion, usually not worth the effort.
Static non-linear: The most common type of non-linear model. The choices made by the player do not alter the narrative in significant ways and the narrative generally travels in a single direction with few deviations. This kind of non-linear narrative is built around "milestone" events which HAVE to be passed through regardless of what "route" the player takes. The game's narrative cannot move forward if these milestones are not cleared. (an example: Persona 4)
I have also created an image to illustrate what the narrative paths of a static non-linear narrative look like,
Target audience:
Some people believe the intended audience of the game is not a core part of the game's design. This is incorrect; game companies do not invest millions into producing videogames unless they already know who the game will appeal to. Designing the game to appeal to a target audience is crucial and often determined before a single line of code of the game is ever written.
Here I am using the same labels as those used by the publishing industry, as I feel they are more appropriate given there is no international rating system at the moment.
Children's: Games intended for play by children up to age 12. They carry an ESRB rating of 'E'.
Young Adults : Games intended for play by teenagers between the ages of 13 and 17. They carry an ESRB rating of 'T'
Adult: Games intended for play by adults (18+). They carry an ESRB rating of 'M'.
Note that this does not mean the game cannot be enjoyed by other age groups; it merely means the developer intended the game to be primarily purchased by one age group.
Narrative genres:
Narrative genres are the same as those used in other creative works; Science-fiction, fantasy, romantic comedy, high school drama, etc
Examples:
Sequential turn based linear Children's fantasy RPG = Final Fantasy
Real time Static non-linear Adult science-fiction RPG = Mass Effect
Active turn based static non-linear Young Adult science fiction RPG = Chrono Trigger
Sequential turn based dynamic non-linear Young Adult fantasy RPG = Romancing SaGa: Minstrel Song
Real time based static non-linear Young Adult science-fiction RPG= SW: Knights of the Old Republic
Active turn based static non-linear Adult fantasy RPG = Dragon Age: Origins
Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG = Secret of Mana
Real time based dynamic non-linear Young Adult fantasy RPG = World of Warcraft
Notice that these new definitions are still very broad; Dragon Quest and Xenogears are both Sequential Turn based games but they possess vastly different combat subsystems from one another. It would be unwise for one to assume that just because a game has a similar type of combat system or narrative model that the games play identically or have similar levels of complexity.
That said, I believe these new definitions are more politically correct than "JRPG" and "WRPG", which express an "Us Vs. Them" mentality concerning games made by the Japanese and games made by Americans. I also believe they better represent the actual mechanics of the games than the older labels "console RPG" and "PC-style RPG", or any other terms I've came across which are misnomers that don't represent the actual mechanics or narrative genres of the games.
What follows is something I have been working on for awhile now. Given the recent discussion about "JRPGs" and "WRPGs", I've decided to let people read my notes to better understand the way I look at games and how I believe others should look at games when trying to quantify their elements.
While I have encouraged people to use the older terms of "console-style" and "PC-style" in place of "JRPG" and "WRPG" since the older terms are more politically correct, I do recognize the older terms are also misnomers and many people see no reason to stop using misnomers in place of other misnomers.
A recurring problem with videogame classification is that a lot of the genre labels we use for games are misnomers; even "strategy rpg" and the Japanese equivalent for the genre, "simulation rpg", are misnomers because all games require strategy and all games are simulations.
One of my core design principles for creating game mechanics is to make the design modular. 'Modular' means you can swap out parts of the design for other parts and the game will still function correctly (which is important so that new rules can be added to an existing game without upsetting its balance). Since I personally would prefer to see genre labels be modular I have attempted to create a modular system for identifying CRPG game genres.
Please note that this is a work in progress-- I think the labels I currently have here are a'bit of a mouthful-- but you can see the direction I'm going.
-----------------
Syntax of the definitions.
Modular systems require a syntax-- a pattern, if you will. The syntax I have created for defining computer RPG genres is as follows:
[Combat system] [narrative model] [target audience] [narrative genre] RPG
An example would be,
'Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG'
With....
..."real time based" representing the combat system...
..."linear" representing the narrative model...
..."Children's" representing the target audience...
...and "fantasy" representing the narrative genre...
A 'Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG' would be Secret of Mana.
Combat genres
In an attempt to best identify different types of combat systems that appear in combat RPGs, I have created the following terms:
Phased turn based : DQ and Wizardry system; at the start of combat the game waits for the player to decide the actions their character(s) will take when combat begins. These systems have combat time divided into blocks called 'rounds'. The combat system descends directly from the tabletop game Dungeons and Dragons, though the games use a more abstract concept of range than D&D did (example: Final Fantasy has a concept of a "front row" and a "back row"). In a Phased turn based system, the player's character(s) will always act in combat before the opposing NPCs can act.
Sequential turn based : A turn based system where each character (including NPCs) has a Speed rating that determines the precise order they will act during a combat round. The system is otherwise identical to Phased turn based combat. While the way turns are determined is more similar to D&D, the abstract nature of range remains.
Active turn based: Games using a system derived from Final Fantasy IV's Active Time Battle System. Unlike Sequential and Phased there is no "pause" between rounds; after taking an action, characters gradually accumulate points as time passes to fill a "bar" and when that bar is full they can make an action. However, like Sequential turn based, characters have a Speed rating that determines how quickly their bar fills up.
Real time based: Games where characters do not take turns. Instead action happens in real time. Characters may or may not have delays on what actions they may take but are capable of moving at any time and almost always have some meaningful action they can do during combat.
Pausable real time based: Real time combat games where players must pause the gameplay to issue orders to characters. Once the game is un-paused the orders are carried out by the characters. Some examples are Secret of Mana, Fallout 3 and Parasite Eve.
Wargaming turn based: Games using a system descending from tabletop wargames. These games tend to be called "strategy RPGs". The player controls a squad of characters who fight across a battlefield using a turn based combat system. They tend to have a more definite concept of range, whereas a Sequential turn based game like Final Fantasy only uses an abstract concept of range (the "rows")
Wargaming real time based: Games using a system descending from tabletop wargames. The player controls a squad of characters who fight across a battlefield using a real time based combat system.
Rogue-like based: A game that uses a combat system derived from Rogue. An example would be the Mystery Dungeon series of games.
Narrative models
Linear: The narrative travels in a straight line with no alternate routes. This is the narrative model used by the majority of fiction, such as novels, films, television shows and video games.
Dynamic non-linear: The rarest type of non-linear narrative model. The player makes choices during gameplay that shape the game's narrative in a meaningful and critical ways so as to substantially change the direction of the game's narrative. There are either no or very few milestone events that the player "must" clear in order for the narrative to advance. The game offers a large number of narrative routes the player can choose to bypass and that will not prevent the narrative from moving forward (an example: Romancing SaGa: MS)
Because I realize this can be a difficult concept for one to visualize I have created the following image to demonstrate what the narrative paths in a Dynamic non-linear narrative look like:
Dynamic non-linear narratives are rare in games because the model gives the writer less control over the flow of the narrative, making it harder for him to craft a meaningful story that hits all the correct emotional buttons in the player. The difficulty and additional time spent writing these narratives are, in my opinion, usually not worth the effort.
Static non-linear: The most common type of non-linear model. The choices made by the player do not alter the narrative in significant ways and the narrative generally travels in a single direction with few deviations. This kind of non-linear narrative is built around "milestone" events which HAVE to be passed through regardless of what "route" the player takes. The game's narrative cannot move forward if these milestones are not cleared. (an example: Persona 4)
I have also created an image to illustrate what the narrative paths of a static non-linear narrative look like,
Target audience:
Some people believe the intended audience of the game is not a core part of the game's design. This is incorrect; game companies do not invest millions into producing videogames unless they already know who the game will appeal to. Designing the game to appeal to a target audience is crucial and often determined before a single line of code of the game is ever written.
Here I am using the same labels as those used by the publishing industry, as I feel they are more appropriate given there is no international rating system at the moment.
Children's: Games intended for play by children up to age 12. They carry an ESRB rating of 'E'.
Young Adults : Games intended for play by teenagers between the ages of 13 and 17. They carry an ESRB rating of 'T'
Adult: Games intended for play by adults (18+). They carry an ESRB rating of 'M'.
Note that this does not mean the game cannot be enjoyed by other age groups; it merely means the developer intended the game to be primarily purchased by one age group.
Narrative genres:
Narrative genres are the same as those used in other creative works; Science-fiction, fantasy, romantic comedy, high school drama, etc
Examples:
Sequential turn based linear Children's fantasy RPG = Final Fantasy
Real time Static non-linear Adult science-fiction RPG = Mass Effect
Active turn based static non-linear Young Adult science fiction RPG = Chrono Trigger
Sequential turn based dynamic non-linear Young Adult fantasy RPG = Romancing SaGa: Minstrel Song
Real time based static non-linear Young Adult science-fiction RPG= SW: Knights of the Old Republic
Active turn based static non-linear Adult fantasy RPG = Dragon Age: Origins
Real time based linear Children's fantasy RPG = Secret of Mana
Real time based dynamic non-linear Young Adult fantasy RPG = World of Warcraft
Notice that these new definitions are still very broad; Dragon Quest and Xenogears are both Sequential Turn based games but they possess vastly different combat subsystems from one another. It would be unwise for one to assume that just because a game has a similar type of combat system or narrative model that the games play identically or have similar levels of complexity.
That said, I believe these new definitions are more politically correct than "JRPG" and "WRPG", which express an "Us Vs. Them" mentality concerning games made by the Japanese and games made by Americans. I also believe they better represent the actual mechanics of the games than the older labels "console RPG" and "PC-style RPG", or any other terms I've came across which are misnomers that don't represent the actual mechanics or narrative genres of the games.
18 comments:
I have a question for you.
Why didn't you make a video with this as your argument?
Was it worth making an attack video and alienating gamers who otherwise might have joined your cause? I hope you felt it was worth your while to destroy your credibility in exchange for some notoriety.
You just set back gamers another step by polarizing them rather than uniting them.
Take care. Hope you learn to respect people.
Nice work guy. I think you made a hell of a good point. A bit Long winded (you kind of have to be), and this could have been spread out over a few posts but I can respect the lack of a cliffhanger.
Despite the haters, those who stand for the truth often stand alone. But not once the truth is heard.
Keep it up.
d (^_^ ) b
I think that...as with the Binomial Nomenclature it's a little complicated. But sometimes is the only way to classify things. I'll try to use your nomenclature. Although I'll have to keep using console/pc.
Maybe you could drop the Audience and instead add the ESRB rating. I think everyone knows what that is and it makes the name shorter.
While you make a more intelligent argument here than you did in your video I still see you don't get it.
That flow chart you got going on is insane. I'd have a easier time understanding the dead sea scrolls. If you think the average RPG gamer is going to understand those countless categories and sub-categories you got a screw loose.
You're making categorizing RPG's much harder and unnecessary than it really should be. As Freud once said "Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar." All J-RPG refers to is a game that comes from Japan. It does not refer to gameplay or mechanics and racism for that matter.
I knew when I saw that link on your video there was going to be a bias and sure enough the article is from you. When are you going to provide other evidence except the ones that suit your over-inflated smug ego?
@happysnouthour
I'm not advocating for the fanatic but I think that you are missing the point here with this quote:
"If you think the average RPG gamer is going to understand those countless categories and sub-categories you got a screw loose."
I do know that the system is complex, but the purpose of the system I think is to be used by the industry itself, not the average RPG gamer. Something similar to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature
Maybe some more ""average joe" friendly" names could be added later. Maybe dropping the [target audience][narrative genre] part of the game :). Then the name could be "completed" only when needed ;)
But think about it...the main purpuse of the fanatic is that games can be seen as an art (just like movies) rather than...well..games X_X.
And that's not going to happen if even the community doesn't take the matter seriously.
I as an aspiring videogame developer hope that someday games can be consider as a form of art.
@happysnouthour:
If people only used JRPG to mean computer RPGs from Japan then it wouldn't be an issue.
The problem is people use it the way Roo did; to imply the games are turn based, have simple character growth systems and linear narratives.
Again, watch the whole video. Roo did NOT use it to say it was just games from Japan. He said they were uniquely different than ones made by "The West". This is where the problem is. This is where the racism is, even you and he don't seem to get it.
This is just my initial thought, I think the section on intended audience should be cut off as we do have the ESRB rating system for that. If an intended audience section is needed, I suggest using sci-fi, fantasy, historical, drama, etc. I do like that you categorize games base on its game mechanics instead of something trivial like art style and country of origin.
ESRB is not universal. The ESRB is only used in the United States, Canada and Mexico.
It's not "universal" but easily understandable and well known O_O (I'm from El Salvador and I know the ESRB).
This may be a bit long and rambling, so I apologize for that in advance.
Turn based combat as seen in CRPGs originally comes from wargames. The original D&D white box set assumes you have a copy of the Chainmail rules and as such lifts its combat directly from that game.
Wizardry's combat system is phased. Phased combat is a turn based system where the turns are acted out simultaneously. In CRPGs, this tends to either be a system where you issue orders and then the turn plays out (Wizardy) or one where every time you make a move the rest of the world does so at the same time (Rogue). Note that phased combat can incorporate movement. Also note that D&D is not phased.
Turn-based is a system where when a player's or character's turn comes up he can act it out immediately. Strategy games sometimes use a system where the turns are per player (Fire Emblem) but again D&D doesn't use this and it's not common in CRPGs. Typically the turns are per character with some sort of initiative system to determine order.
D&D has rounds in which all characters act out their turns and then the initiative is refreshed. Any Gold Box game offers a great example of this system in a CRPG. I think it's just easier in a P&P setting if you don't have to deal with continuous initiative. If you don't have rounds and order is based purely on initiative, that's atomic (Final Fantasy Tactics, Ultima V).
ATB combat is just the above atomic turn based system but with initiative represented as a real-time event rather than it being calculated instantly in the background. Think about Final Fantasy Tactics. You could convert it to ATB simply by attaching a meter to each character that fills up before his turn comes again or his charged action finishes. Ditto for Ultima V or VI.
All that rambling was to say I think your division of combat systems is odd. What is the real difference between Sequential Turn-Based and Wargaming Turn-based? Movement? But D&D had movement from the beginning as did the earliest CRPGs. For that matter, the oldest CRPG conversions of AD&D, the Gold Box games, also feature it.
So why imply that tactical turn-based combat is more derived from wargaming? As written, it implies Wizardry's combat is just like D&D's, and that's just not true. Why even cut it up this way and not distinguish between phased and turn-based but do between with and without movement?
You also leave paused combat off the list entirely. Paused combat is basically phased combat executed in real-time. The oldest example I can think of is Darklands. Although a point could be made that Phantasy Star II's combat system is basically this since it's designed to allow you to enter orders and then run them continuously until you interrupt. That said, PSII uses rounds and can only be stopped at the end of a round while Darklands is atomic and can be paused at any moment. And Darklands allows movement. Still, this isn't real-time in same way that a game like Oblivion is, and shouldn't be lumped in with it and more than ATB should.
As a minor side note, SRPG is a more recent term. As in I don't recall it before the mid to late 90's. It's odd because there doesn't seem to be any real difference between it and turn-based strategy games. My suspicion is it derives from people who only had console gaming experience and thus missed the TBS games that were very popular on computers. Strategy games have always resembled RPGs in mechanics and thus these gamers lumped games like Fire Emblem and Final Fantasy Tactics in with CRPGs. I use the term SRPG, but I am always aware that it's odd to claim FFT is a SRPG but X-Com a TBS.
@Andrew Priest
Great comment!!
I noticed KotOR among the examples. I don't know how I missed it, but I think it's a good one to examine. The mechanics are turn-based complete with rounds a la D&D, this is evident by the pause at end of round option, but it runs in real-time. Of course, you can pause it at any time. I remember the real-time vs. turn-based debate that went on when the game came out, and honestly it's hard to be sure which it fits into. Set auto-pause to end of round and it's phased; never pause and it's real-time. Hence I think it's easier to simply have a paused combat category so as to avoid dealing with it.
Now on to the target audience part. I'm not sure it needs to be mentioned for every game. Look at films where target audience it only mentioned in special cases but otherwise ignored. As someone who leans towards new criticism, I feel games should be analyzed by what they are and not what the designers intended. Plus, this feels like an excuse for elements like adolescent power fantasies. That said, I can see reasons to use it, but I have qualms regarding this particular setup.
Ratings systems are not designed to indicate target audience. All they measure is objectionable content. It simply does not follow that a lack of objectionable material indicates children as the target. And all the protesting in the industry won't change the fact that graphic violence appeals to teenagers and developers know it.
By this system, nearly every CRPG before the early/mid nineties was for children. As are flight sims requiring hundreds of dollars in controllers and as many hours of practice.
That problem aside, target audiences are hardly limited to 3 age groupings. There are games which aim for broad audiences, much as blockbuster films do, and games which target a niche. Saying that Spiderweb Software's games are mature or young adult doesn't tell you they target a niche of old school PC RPG fans.
@Andrew Priest,
Your question,
"All that rambling was to say I think your division of combat systems is odd. What is the real difference between Sequential Turn-Based and Wargaming Turn-based? Movement? But D&D had movement from the beginning as did the earliest CRPGs. For that matter, the oldest CRPG conversions of AD&D, the Gold Box games, also feature it."
Strategy RPGs are about controlling units across a battlefield. They tend to have a more definite concept of range, whereas a Sequential turn based game like Final Fantasy only uses an abstract concept of range (the "rows"). I should make this more clear.
"That problem aside, target audiences are hardly limited to 3 age groupings. There are games which aim for broad audiences, much as blockbuster films do, and games which target a niche. Saying that Spiderweb Software's games are mature or young adult doesn't tell you they target a niche of old school PC RPG fans. "
Actually the entertainment industry does use broad generalizations. Because of the extraordinary cost to create and distribute, the big studios / developers / publishers are less interested in niche audiences.
Also, let is suppose all games are meant for a niche audience. How are we to tell which audiences these are if the developers do not tell us? The only information we have to go on for if a game is meant for children or adults is the rating systems. Thus why I only have three categories for the target audience; there are only three ratings groups (Children, Teens and Adults).
As for whether it needs to be mentioned, yes it does. Too many gamers compare a game like Dragon Age: Origins to the Final Fantasy 13 even though Dragon Age was meant for adults (thus the Mature ESRB rating) and Final Fantasy 13 was meant for teenagers and up (Thus the Teen ESRB rating). As the games were meant for different audiences it is incorrect to complain that Final Fantasy 13 does not have lots of sex in its storyline like Dragon Age does. This is not a hypothetical situation; you can find people who have made this complaint rather easily. One example, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hfxp5ANI5JY
"I noticed KotOR among the examples. I don't know how I missed it, but I think it's a good one to examine. The mechanics are turn-based complete with rounds a la D&D, this is evident by the pause at end of round option, but it runs in real-time. Of course, you can pause it at any time. I remember the real-time vs. turn-based debate that went on when the game came out, and honestly it's hard to be sure which it fits into. Set auto-pause to end of round and it's phased; never pause and it's real-time. Hence I think it's easier to simply have a paused combat category so as to avoid dealing with it. "
I agree. I added a pauseable real-time based category. This is also needed to best address games in the 'Tales of' and 'Mana' series.
I will also add a phased turn based category. Something is bugging me about that definition though. I will need to figure out what it is before I add the category, but I think you are right in that games which are completely turn based and those which have NPCs and players acting at the same time should be separate categories.
However, it is harder to determine which is which unless you know how the game was programmed.
I find that these proposed new genre names like "Sequential turn based linear Children's fantasy RPG" and "Real time based static non-linear Young Adult science-fiction RPG" are too specific to warrant new categorizations.
It is much more concise to say "JRPG" or "WRPG," 4-letter acronyms that people will know what one is referring to. It helps to keep a spectrum of genres that is neither too broad nor too specific and I think that the terms "JRPG" and "WRPG" do just fine and the perception that critics make JRPGs to look inferior to WRPGs is a mistaken one.
@Quik: I disagree. People do not use JRPG or WRPG to always mean the same thing. Some people say it just means the industries while others want to claim they define game mechanics the other "type" doesn't have.
As for the perception, many of the top Google results for "JRPG" are bias articles written by game journalists who are bashing the Japanese game industry, claiming it is "dying" while the American industry is "revolutionizing" and other nonsense. They paint a distorted picture of reality.
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